Plot in the novel

 Name: kuvadiya Nidhi Bhalabhai

Std: s.y B.A

Subject: mejar 6 ( translation 1)

College: maharani shree nandkuvarba mahila Arts & commerce college

  📚Class assignment

 

Unit - 1 History of Translation,

Types of Translation (with special reference to John Dryden)

1.Introduction:

Translation is as old as human language itself. In the West, the earliest records of translation

activities date back to the third millennium BC. Over time, translation has been viewed in

different ways, as an “art,” a “craft,” or a “science.” For example, in ancient Babylon (around

2100 BC), scribes translated official documents into different languages to manage the empire’s

diverse population.

Translators have been seen in both positive and negative ways. Some have called them ‘traitors’

or ‘predators,’ while others see them as ‘bridges’ or ‘connectors’ between cultures. Interestingly,

it is only in the 20th and 21st centuries that translation has gained widespread recognition as an

important field. Now, translation is an established area of research, with many books, journals,

and dissertations published on the subject. Much of the modern research focuses on big ideas like

ideology, ethics, and culture in translation.

2. Origin of Translation Studies:

The phrase "Translation Studies" was first used by James S. Holmes, an American scholar living

in Amsterdam. He introduced this term in 1972 in his paper "The Name and Nature of

Translation Studies." This work is seen as a key starting point for the field of translation studies.

3. History of Translation:

Translation has a long history, going back thousands of years. The earliest known translations

occurred as far back as the third millennium BC in places like ancient Babylon, where scribes

translated official documents into various languages. In the Roman era, Greek texts were

translated into Latin, greatly influencing Roman culture and language. In the Middle Ages,

translating the Bible into local languages helped spread religious ideas across Europe. During the

Renaissance, translators focused more on the readers and adapted texts creatively. The 17th to

19th centuries saw growing interest in balancing accuracy and readability, with translators like

Dryden and Pope shaping modern translation practices. By the 20th century, translation became

recognized as an academic field, combining linguistic and literary approaches to better

understand the art and science of translation.

3.1 The Roman Translations:

The Romans were some of the first in the Western world to take up the task of translation. They

translated many important Greek works, including those about philosophy, science, history, and

religion. Over time, so much Greek culture was translated that it became hard to tell what was

originally Greek and what was Roman. Even early Bible translations were influenced by theseGreco-Roman methods. Cicero, a well-known Roman translator and thinker, introduced two

main ideas: ‘word-for-word’ translation and ‘sense-for-sense’ translation. He believed that just

translating the exact words wasn't enough. Instead, a translator should carefully choose words

that carry the same meaning in the target language. This approach helps keep the original

meaning while also making the translation understandable. Another Roman translator, Horace,

agreed with Cicero. He understood the challenges translators face and advised them not to follow

the original text too strictly. He suggested using new expressions to make the translation more

effective. The Romans, thus, accepted the use of new words, expression etc. to be carried

forward into the target language as one of their aims of translation was to enrich their own

literary tradition.

3.2 The Bible Translation:

The translation of the Bible had a big impact on how languages developed in Europe. It

encouraged the use of local languages (called vernaculars) instead of Latin and helped enrich

many European languages. The translations were also used to challenge the wrong practices of

the church. By making the Bible available in common languages, it became harder for clergy to

misuse religious teachings.

John Wycliffe was the first to translate the Bible into English. He believed that comparing the

grammar and meaning of words between the original language (source) and the translated

language (target) was important. This method became a standard for translators. Many also felt

that the translated Bible should not only be easy to understand but also written in a way that was

pleasing to read. So, Bible translations aimed to be clear and inspiring.

3.3 The Renaissance Translations:

During the Renaissance, a movement known for promoting humanism, people began to focus

more on individuals and less on the church(God). This shift in thinking also affected how

translations were done. Translators started to pay more attention to their audience and the target

language rather than sticking closely to the original text. The English translator Earl of Surrey,

for example, translated Petrarch's sonnets with a lot of creativity, going beyond simply

translating word by word or line by line. He made the translations more relatable to readers by

emphasizing the sense of the individual. Overall, Renaissance translators prioritized making the

text more accessible and meaningful to their readers.

3.4 Translations in the Seventeenth Century:

The Renaissance continued to influence Europe until the mid-seventeenth century. This time was

known for a spirit of discovery and curiosity about new ideas. Translators helped bring in new

knowledge from different cultures. However, in the mid-seventeenth century, rational thinking

and rules for writing became more important. Classical texts from ancient Greece and Rome

were used as models, and the process of translation bewell-known translator of this time, translated Ovid’s ‘Epistles’ and developed his own theory of

translation. He identified three methods:

1.Metaphrase – Translating word for word and line by line.

2.Imitation – A very free translation where the translator takes creative liberties.

3.Paraphrase – A middle-ground approach where the translator captures the sense or meaning

of the original text while giving some freedom to adapt.

Dryden favored Paraphrase because it allowed translators to stay true to the original meaning

while making the text more readable and engaging in the new language. He was critical of

Metaphrase for being too rigid and of Imitation for straying too far from the original. Dryden’s

ideas on translation were later shared by Alexander Pope, who also believed in capturing the

spirit of the original text and paying attention to style in translations.

3.5 Translations in the 18th Century:

In the 18th century, translators followed the methods set by Dryden and Pope. Dr. Samuel

Johnson, in his ‘Life of Pope’ (1779-80), argued that translators should be understood in the

context of their own time and culture. He supported the Pope's translations because they were

tailored to the tastes and needs of the people in his own era. Dr. Johnson added an important

question for translators to consider: ‘Who’ is the translation for? Along with deciding ‘what’ to

translate and ‘why’ translators now needed to think about their audience. During this time, many

texts were re-translated to fit contemporary tastes and language. The 18th century, therefore,

emphasized making translations more suitable for the target readers and updating the language to

be more current. By the end of the century, Alexander Fraser Tytler published ‘The Principles of

Translation’ (1791), which was one of the first studies on translation in English. Tytler outlined

three key principles:

(a) the translation must retain the complete idea of the original work,

(b) the style and manner of writing should be of the same type as the original and

(c) the translation should have the ease of the source language text.

Tyler did not recommend Dryden’s concept of ‘Paraphrase’ for even this, according to him, led

to lose translations. He, however, recommended ‘omissions’ and ‘additions’ in the translation in

order to clarify ambiguities.

3.6 Translations in the Romantic Age:

The translators of the Romantic Age in the early nineteenth century were able to give the art of

translation a new turn. They rejected the rationalism of the 17th century Restoration Age. They

rather emphasized the crucial role of imagination. Coleridge in his BiographiaLiteraria had

distinguished between ‘Fancy’ and ‘Imagination’. He considered ‘Imagination' to be the course

of creativity. Shelley, another important Romantic poet, appreciated translations not just for their

accuracy but for their literary qualities. He believed that translating poetry should involverecreating its spirit rather than simply transferring words. He famously said that trying to

translate a poem word-for-word was like trying to discover the essence of a violet by destroying

it.

3.7 Translations in the Victorian Age:

The Victorians, who came after the Romantics, were also interested in capturing the spirit of the

original text, but they added their own touch by using archaic language, which gave their

translations a sense of being from a distant time or place. Matthew Arnold had delivered a series

of lectures entitled ‘On Translating Homer’ (1862). For him, the true judge of the translated

texts are the scholars and it is only they who can judge whether a translation has more or less the

same effect as the original. His advice the critic of translation was this: “Let him ask how his

work affects those who both know Greek (the language of the original text) and can appreciate

poetry”. By the end of the 19th century, translation theory began to treat translated texts as

independent works, rather than just copies of the originals.

3.8 Translations in the 20th Century:

The 20th century brought a shift in translation theory with the rise of linguistic theories. These

new ideas, such as American structuralism and Noam Chomsky's transformational grammar,

influenced translation practices. There was a growing recognition that language and literature are

deeply rooted in culture, and translations should reflect the cultural context of the target

audience. By the mid-20th century, translators started moving away from strict literal translations

and free translations. Instead, they began adopting a balanced approach, aiming for a middle

ground that respected both the meaning and form of the original text while making it accessible

to contemporary readers. As a result, the focus shifted towards creating translations that resonate

with the target audience, considering their cultural background and expectations.

3.9 Modern Translation:

In today's globalized world, translation has become more essential than ever. With the rapid

exchange of information across countries and cultures, translation serves as a bridge that

connects people speaking different languages. Modern translation goes beyond literary and

religious texts; it now encompasses technical documents, scientific research, business

communication, legal texts, entertainment, and digital content. The rise of technology, including

the internet, has made information instantly accessible, but only if it's understandable. This has

increased the demand for professional translators and machine-assisted translations.

One of the biggest developments in modern translation is the use of machine translation tools,

such as Google Translate, which can quickly translate large amounts of text. While these tools

are not perfect and often struggle with context or idiomatic expressions, they have made

translation accessible to the masses and have sped up the translation process for many industries.Computer-assisted translation (CAT) tools also help translators by providing translation

memory and terminology databases, ensuring consistency and saving time.

However, human translators remain crucial, especially for creative, literary, or nuanced texts

where meaning goes beyond the words. Cultural differences, idioms, and the emotional tone of a

text require a human touch to fully capture the intent of the original. In sum, modern translation

is not only about converting words from one language to another. It is about understanding

context, culture, and purpose. With advances in technology and the growing need for global

communication, translation continues to evolve, playing a vital role in connecting the world.

Summing up:

Translation has played an important role in the development of language and culture throughout

history. For example, Roman translations enriched both their language and culture. Bible

translations helped spread religious ideas to more people. During the Restoration period,

translating French drama into English helped improve English literary style. In 18th century

England, translations brought spiritual ideas from other cultures, like transcendentalism, to new

audiences. In the 19th and 20th centuries, translations allowed people to enjoy great works of art

from other languages and enabled comparative studies. Thus, translation is a crucial part of

language and literature studies worldwide.

Types of Translation (with special reference to John Dryden)

Introduction:

John Dryden, a prominent English poet and translator of the 17th century, significantly

influenced translation theory with his detailed analysis of different translation methods. His

classification of translation types provides valuable insights into how translators approach

various texts and contexts.

Dryden identified three primary types of translation, each with its distinct characteristics:

1.Metaphrase: (Word for word)

This approach involves a literal, word-for-word translation from the source language to the target

language. The objective of Metaphrase is to maintain exact correspondence between the original

and translated texts. While it strives for precision, this method can sometimes result in awkward

or stilted language, especially when the source and target languages differ significantly in

structure and idiom.

2.Imitation: (Free)

Imitation goes beyond literal translation by focusing on capturing the spirit and style of the

original text. This method allows the translator to adapt the content creatively to suit the target

audience, while still reflecting the essence of the original work. It emphasizes the stylistic andthematic elements rather than exact wording, aiming to produce a translation that feels both fresh

and engaging to the new audience.

3.Paraphrase: (Sense for sense)

Paraphrase involves translating the general meaning and ideas of the original text rather than

adhering closely to its exact wording. This method provides flexibility, allowing the translator to

convey the core message of the source material in a way that is natural and comprehensible in

the target language. Dryden regarded Paraphrase as the most effective approach, as it balances

fidelity to the original text with the need to adapt it appropriately for the new context.

Dryden’s Views on Alexander Pope:

Dryden's translation principles, outlined in his preface to Ovid's Epistles, established a set of

rules for literary translators. He proposed that translators should be poets, understand both

languages, and preserve the original text's essence while making it appealing to contemporary

readers. Dryden also classified translations into Metaphrase, Paraphrase, and Imitation,

advocating for Paraphrase as the ideal method to retain the meaning of the source text without

excessive rigidity. Alexander Pope, a contemporary of Dryden, supported the idea that no literal

translation could fully capture the essence of a superior original. He argued that while Paraphrase

could address some shortcomings of literal translations, it risked losing the original's spirit if it

deviated too much. Pope and Dryden agreed that the core message of the source text should

remain the central focus of translation.

Summing up:

John Dryden’s classification of translation methods, Metaphrase, Imitation, and Paraphrase,

offers a framework for understanding different translation strategies. Metaphrase emphasizes

literal accuracy, Imitation focuses on capturing the original’s stylistic essence, and Paraphrase

balances meaning with readability. Dryden’s theories remain influential, highlighting the

importance of adapting translations to fit both the linguistic and cultural contexts of the targetaudience. 

Home 🏠assignment 

Equivalence in Translation Studies

Theory of Equivalence:

The theory of equivalence is fundamental in translation studies, focusing on how to maintain

accuracy and fidelity between the source text (SL) and the target text (TL). It was particularly

emphasized during the 1960s and 1970s, with scholars proposing various models and types of

equivalence to handle the complexities of translation.

What is Equivalence?

Equivalence can be thought of as the balance a translator strives to achieve when moving from

one language to another. Since no two languages are exactly alike in terms of structure,

vocabulary, or cultural nuance, perfect word-for-word translation is often impossible.

Equivalence, then, becomes a guiding principle that helps translators find ways to convey the

same message, intent, and emotional effect of the source text, even if the words and structures

used in the target language differ.

The Concept Of Equivalence:

The concept of equivalence has been of particular concern to translation scholars since it has

been inextricably linked with both definitional and practical aspects of translating. Becoming an

essential feature of translation theories in the 1960s and 1970s, equivalence was meant to

indicate that source text (henceforth ST) and target text (henceforth TT)

share some kind of sameness. The question was as to the kind and degree of sameness which

gave birth to different kinds of equivalence. In what follows, an attempt will be made to critically

analyze the equivalence paradigm as was conceptualized by the following scholars in the field,

namely, Vinay and Darbelnet (1958), Jakobson (1959), Nida and Taber (1969), Catford (1965),

House (1997), Koller (1979), Newmark (1981), Baker (1992), and finally, Pym (2010).

1. Introduction to the theory of James Holmes:

Translation has existed for thousands of years, helping people understand different languages and

cultures. As a formal discipline, it began to take shape in the 20th century, thanks to the scholar

James Holmes in 1972. He proposed the term "Translation Studies", which became widely

accepted. Holmes saw translation as more than just literary work (like translating books) and

included other important areas, such as interpreting (real-time spoken translation) and translator

training.

James Holmes believed that translation should be studied like any other academic subject, using

scientific and systematic methods. He argued that translation is not just about replacing wordsbetween languages but also understanding cultures, contexts, and the purpose of language in

different situations.

He divided Translation Studies into two large areas:

1. Pure Translation Studies – Focuses on the theory behind translation.

2. Applied Translation Studies– Focuses on practical translation work and training translators.

1.Pure Translation Studies

This area looks at the theoretical side of translation, focusing on understanding the process itself,

such as what happens when we translate from one language to another.

1.1 Theories of Equivalence

A major topic in Pure Translation Studies is equivalence. The goal is to ensure that the translated

text has the same meaning, emotion, and effect as the original.

Eugene Nida introduced the concept of dynamic equivalence, which means making the

translated text have the same impact on the new audience as the original did, even if the words or

structure are different. Languages carry cultural meanings that don’t always have exact

equivalents in other languages. Translators must find ways to handle these cultural differences.

Vinay and Darbelnet talked about how translators can replicate the same situation using

different words to fit the cultural context. Roman Jakobson identified three types of translation:

1.Intralingual translation

2.Interlingual translation

3.Intersemiotic translation

These different types help us understand how translation works in various forms beyond just

words.

2. Applied Translation Studies

This area deals with how to apply the theories from Pure Translation Studies in real-world

translation tasks.

2.1. Translator Training

Training translators is an important part of Applied Translation Studies. Translators need to

understand the different types of texts they might work with, such as literary, legal, or technicaltexts.

  

For example 

A legal translator must be highly accurate and know legal terms in both languages. A literary

translator needs to be creative, ensuring the style and tone of the author are preserved in the

translation.

2.2. Translation Tools

Technology has become a key part of the translation process today. Translators use various tools

to make their work faster, more accurate, and consistent. Two major types of translation tools are

CAT tools and Machine Translation (MT).

1.CAT Tools (Computer-Assisted Translation)

CAT tools are software programs that help human translators by making the translation process

smoother and more efficient. They do not translate the text on their own but assist translators in

several ways:

- Translation Memory (TM): This feature stores previous translations and suggests them when

the same or similar sentences appear in a new text.

- Terminology Management: CAT tools allow translators to create glossaries of terms that need

to be translated in a specific way. This ensures that the same terms are translated consistently

across all documents.

Popular CAT tools include SDL Trados, MemoQ, and Wordfast. These tools help improve the

speed and quality of human translation by allowing the translator to focus on translating rather

than constantly checking for consistency or reusing past work.

2. Machine Translation (MT)

Machine Translation refers to fully automated translation systems, where software like Google

Translate or DeepL translates text from one language to another without human input. MT is fast

and can be useful for quick, general translations. However, machine translation often struggles

with accuracy, especially in complex or creative texts like literature.

In Applied Translation Studies, researchers look at how MT can be combined with human

expertise to improve translation quality. Instead of relying on MT alone, translators use

post-editing, where they review and correct machine-translated text. This saves time but ensures

that the final translation is accurate and culturally appropriate. In the future, the combination of

CAT tools and machine translation will likely become even more seamless, making the

translation process faster while maintaining high-quality standards. However, human translators

will always play a crucial role in ensuring that meaning, tone, and cultural nuances are conveyed.

3 . Specialized Translation

Applied Translation Studies also covers fields like medical, legal, and scientific translation.

Each field has its own terminology and challenges.

For example:

- Medical translators must ensure patients’ documents are accurately translated to avoid serious

misunderstandings.

Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS)

Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) is a part of Pure Translation Studies. Instead of making

judgments on whether a translation is good or bad, DTS observes how translation happens and

why translators make certain decisions. It helps explain how translations work in different

contexts, without giving strict rules.

Types of DTS

DTS can be divided into three areas:

1. Product-oriented DTS:

This is about examining the final translated text.

- For example, comparing the original “Kafka on the Shore” in Japanese with its English

translation to see how certain words, sentences, and cultural references were handled.

2. Process-oriented DTS:

This looks at the translator’s thinking process.

- For instance, asking a translator how they decided to translate certain tricky words or phrases

and whether they read the whole text first or translated it as they went along.

3. Function-oriented DTS:

This focuses on how the translation is received in the new culture.

- For example, examining how English readers responded to “Kafka on the Shore” compared to

Japanese readers and seeing whether the book influenced English-language authors or increased

interest in Japanese culture.

2.Vinay and Darbelnet's Theory

In 1958, Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet wrote a book comparing how French and English

handle translation. They came up with two main types of translation and seven specific ways to

translate things.

Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet produced their Stylistique Comparée du Françaiset de l'

Anglais (1958) which is a comparative stylistic analysis of the different translation strategies and

procedures used in French and English. In its English version, first published in 1995, theydistinguish between direct and oblique translation, the former referring to literal translation and

the latter to free translation Moreover, they propose seven procedures, the first three covered by

direct translation and the remaining four by oblique translation. In Vinay and Darbelnet theory,

Equivalence refers to a translation method where you express the same idea using completely

different words or styles in the target language. It's like finding a way to say the same thing, but

in a way that sounds natural and makes sense in the language you're translating into.

Two Main Types of Translation

1. Direct Translation: This is when you can translate pretty much word-for-word.

2. Oblique Translation: This is when you need to get creative because word-for-word doesn't

work.

Seven Ways to Translate

Direct Translation Methods

1. Borrowing: Using the original word (like "sushi" in English).

2. Calque: Translating a phrase literally (like "skyscraper" becoming "गगनचंबी ु इमारत" in

Hindi).

3. Literal Translation: Translating word-for-word when it makes sense.

Oblique Translation Methods:

4. Transposition: Changing the type of word but keeping the meaning.

5. Modulation: Changing the point of view (like "It's easy" instead of "It's not difficult").

6. Equivalence: Using a completely different phrase that means the same thing.

7. Adaptation: Changing a cultural reference to something the new readers will understand.

- Equivalence

Equivalence is about finding a way to say the same thing, even if you use totally different words.

It's especially useful for things like Proverbs, Idioms, Sayings.

For example, In English, the idiom "out of the frying pan and into the fire" (meaning escaping

from one problem only to land in a worse situation) can be translated in an Indian context to

"आसमान सेगिरा और खजरू मेंअटका" (literally: "Fell from the sky and

 got stuck in a date tree").

1. Dictionaries can't include every possible phrase.

2. The context of the sentence is super important and can change how you translate something.

The most important thing, they decided, is to look at the whole situation in the original text.

Translators should focus on understanding the context and then find the best way to express that

same idea in the new language, even if it means using very different words.

In particular, it is argued that equivalence is viewed as a procedure in which the same situation is

replicated as in the original but different wording is used. Through this procedure, it is claimed

that the stylistic impact of the source-language (henceforth SL) text can be maintained in the

target-language (henceforth TL) text. Hence, when dealing with proverbs, idioms and clichés,

equivalence for them is sought at the level of sense and not image. For example, the idiom

“comme un chien dans un jeu de quilles” meaning literally like a dog in a set of skittles could be

translated like a bull in a china shop. Furthermore, Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) consider as a

necessary and sufficient condition for equivalent expressions between language pairs to be

acceptable to be listed in a bilingual dictionary “as full equivalents” . Nevertheless, they realized

the utopia of such a statement by admitting that glossaries and collections of idiomatic

expressions are non-exhaustive.

When is Equivalence Used?

Equivalence is particularly useful when translating:

1. Idioms

2. Proverbs

3. Fixed expressions

4. Onomatopoeia (words that imitate sounds)

5. Exclamations

Instead of translating word-for-word, you look for an expression in the target language that

conveys the same meaning or produces the same effect as the original.

Examples of Equivalence:

1. Idioms:

- English: "It's raining cats and dogs"

- मसलधार ू बारिश हो रही है" (Literally: "It’s raining heavily with a torrent")

- Both express very heavy rain, using completely different imagery.

2. Proverbs:

- English: "The early bird catches the worm"

- जो सोवत है, वो खोवत है" (Literally: "God helps those who wake up early")

Both encourage being early or prompt, but use different phrases.

3. Fixed expressions:

- English: "As snug as a bug in a rug"

- "माँकी गोद में" (Literally: "In a mother’s lap")

- Both express feeling very comfortable and secure.

4. Onomatopoeia:

- English: "Meow" (cat sound)

- Japanese equivalent: "Nyan"

- Different words are used to represent the same animal sound.

5. Exclamations:

- English: "Ouch!" (expression of pain)

- Italian equivalent: "Ahi!"

- Different words express the same sudden feeling of pain.

Why is Equivalence Important?

1. It helps maintain the style and impact of the original text.

2. It ensures the translation sounds natural to native speakers of the target language.

3. It preserves cultural elements that might be lost in a literal translation.

4. It helps convey humor, emotions, or cultural references effectively.

In summary, equivalence theory provides a framework for understanding how to balance fidelity

to the source text with the need to adapt it for the target audience, focusing on meaning, effect,

and the relationship between language systems.

3.Roman Jakobson:

Roman Jakobson’s theory of equivalence, introduced in his seminal 1959 essay On Linguistic

Aspects of Translation," is an important contribution to translation studies. His focus was on how

meaning is transferred from one language to another and how the idea of equivalence can be

understood beyond just a word-for-word translation.

Jakobson identified three types of translation equivalence, each reflecting different aspects of

meaning and communication:

1.Intralingual Translation:

This type of translation occurs within the same language. It involves rewording or paraphrasing

a message in different terms. For example, simplifying a complex text for easier understanding

or explaining an idiom in plain language would be considered intralingual translation. Here,

equivalence is achieved by finding different expressions or synonyms within the same language

to convey the same meaning.

2. Interlingual Translation:

This is what we typically think of as translation, where a message is translated from one

language to another. Jakobson highlighted that there is no full equivalence between words in

different languages because languages structure reality differently. Words in one language may

not have an exact match in another, which forces translators to find equivalents that convey the

meaning, if not the exact wording, of the original. In this type, equivalence involves finding

ways to express the same idea, concept, or emotion in a different language, even if the exact

linguistic structures differ.

3. Intersemiotic Translation:

This type refers to the translation of verbal signs into non-verbal sign systems. In other words,

translating words into different forms of communication, such as turning a novel into a

movie, a poem into a painting, or even translating a written message into sign language.

Equivalence in this case focuses on how meaning is conveyed across different mediums or sign

systems, rather than between languages.

Jakobson's Key Idea: Meaning vs. Words

Jakobson's theory emphasizes that equivalence in meaning is more important than equivalence

in words. He famously said, "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not

in what they may convey." This means that different languages may require different ways of

expressing the same meaning, and translation is about capturing that meaning rather than simply

translating words or structures.

For example, idioms, metaphors, or cultural expressions in one language may not have a direct

equivalent in another language. In such cases, the translator must find creative ways to convey

the same idea or emotional effect in the target language, even if the literal meaning is changed.

Challenges in Jakobson's Equivalence:

Jakobson pointed out that achieving perfect equivalence is often impossible because languages

are culturally and structurally unique. However, his theory encourages translators to focus on

functional equivalence conveying the message’s core meaning and effect, even if the words or

form change.

Conclusion:

Roman Jakobson’s theory of equivalence broadened the understanding of translation beyond

literal word-for-word correspondence. By introducing the three types of translation (intralingual,

interlingual, and intersemiotic), he highlighted the complexity of transferring meaning not only

across languages but also across different forms of communication. His work laid the foundation

for later developments in translation studies, particularly in understanding that equivalence is

about meaning and function rather than exact replication of words.

4. Nida and Taber:

Eugene A. Nida and Charles R. Taber’s theory of translation, as presented in their work "The

Theory and Practice of Translation" (1969), focuses on the concept of equivalence in translation

and emphasizes the importance of making the translated text understandable and impactful for

the target audience. Their theory is primarily rooted in Nida’s work on Bible translation but

applies to translation in general.

The contribution of Eugene Nida in the field of translation studies cannot be overstressed, with

his two famous books in the 1960s: “Toward a Science of Translating” (1964) and the

co-authored “The Theory and Practice of Translation”, attempting to give a more “scientific”

sense to translation. Borrowing theoretical concepts from semantics and pragmatics, and being

influenced by Chomsky’s “generative-transformational grammar” (1965), Nida adopts a more

systematic approach to exploring the field of translation studies.

With regard to equivalence, Nida maintains that there are two basic types of equivalence:

(1) formal equivalence

(2) dynamic equivalence

Key Elements of Nida and Taber's Theory:

1.Formal Equivalence:

This type of equivalence focuses on maintaining the form and content of the source text (SL) as

closely as possible in the target text (TL). The aim is to retain the structure, grammar, and

vocabulary of the original, providing the TL audience with a translation that reflects the literal

meaning and form of the SL. This approach is more concerned with the literal accuracy of the

translation and is often used in legal, scientific, or religious texts where preserving the original

language's precise meaning is essential.

2. Dynamic Equivalence:

Dynamic equivalence focuses on the effect of the translation on the target audience, aiming to

evoke the same response in the TL readers as the SL text did in its original audience. This

approach allows for more flexibility in the translation. The form of the original may be altered to

make the text more natural and comprehensible to the target audience, as long as the core

meaning and intent are preserved. Dynamic equivalence prioritizes communicative clarity andcultural adaptation, making it more suitable for literary, religious, or expressive texts where

capturing the emotional and communicative intent is critical. According to Nida and Taber,

dynamic equivalence is the ideal form of translation because it ensures that the translation

communicates the same message and impact as the original, making it understandable to people

from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds.

The Translation Process:

Nida and Taber outlined a three-stage translation process that a translator should follow to

achieve dynamic equivalence:

1. Analysis:

The translator breaks down the source text to understand its grammar, meaning, and cultural

context. This includes identifying the message and intention behind the text, as well as its

stylistic elements.

2. Transfer:

The translator takes the analyzed content and transfers the meaning into the target language. At

this stage, the translator decides how to best express the meaning of the source text, considering

both linguistic and cultural differences between the SL and TL.

3. Restructuring:

After the message has been transferred into the target language, the translator restructures the

text to ensure it reads naturally in the TL. This step ensures that the TL readers will understand

the translation and react to it similarly to how SL readers responded to the original.

Focus on Audience and Cultural Context:

Nida and Taber stressed the importance of considering the cultural context of both the source and

target texts. They believed that translations should not only convey the original message but also

be culturally appropriate for the target audience. This means the translator may have to adapt

expressions, idioms, and cultural references to make them more relevant and understandable to

the TL audience.

Criticism of Nida and Taber’s Theory:

While Nida and Taber's dynamic equivalence approach was highly influential, it has also faced

criticism:

- Loss of Formal Features: Some scholars argue that dynamic equivalence can lead to a loss of

important stylistic, formal, and structural elements of the source text.

- Over-Adoption: Critics claim that in some cases, dynamic equivalence might lead to

over-adaptation, where the translation becomes too free, potentially distorting the original

message. However, despite these criticisms, Nida and Taber's work laid the foundation formodern translation studies, particularly with its emphasis on the importance of the target

audience’s experience and the communicative function of translation.

Conclusion:

Nida and Taber's theory of equivalence places a strong emphasis on dynamic equivalence,

focusing on how the translated text should affect the target audience in the same way that the

original affected its readers. Their approach highlights the need for flexibility, cultural

sensitivity, and clear communication in translation, making their model especially useful in

contexts where understanding and impact are more important than strict literal accuracy.

5. Catford:

Catford made an important contribution to translation studies by introducing the idea of types

and shifts in translation. These shifts are changes that occur when moving from the source

language (SL) to the target language (TL) during translation. He explains three main types of

translation:

1. Full vs. Partial Translation: In a full translation, the entire text is translated from one

language to another, while in a partial translation, only parts of the text are translated, and other

parts are left in the original language.

2. Total vs. Restricted Translation: Total translation involves translating every part of the

language, including grammar, vocabulary, and meaning. Restricted translation, on the other hand,

only translates certain levels, like just the vocabulary or just the grammar, without covering

everything in the text.

3.Rank-bound vs. Unbounded Translation:

Rank-bound translation limits itself to specific levels of language, such as sentences or words,

and doesn’t move beyond that. Unbounded translation, however, is more flexible and works at

any level, whether it’s words, phrases, or larger sections like paragraphs.

Since this discussion focuses on equivalence in translation, the most important point Catford

talks about is the third type: shifts in translation. A shift happens when the translator moves away

from simply matching words and instead makes changes to fit the target language. According to

Catford, there are two main types of shifts:

1. Level Shifts: This type of shift happens when an item at one level in the source language (like

grammar) is translated into something at a different level in the target language (like vocabulary).

For example, a grammatical phrase in one language might need to be replaced by a single word

in another.

2. Category Shifts: This is when there are structural changes between the source and target

languages. These category shifts are divided into four types:

-Structure Shifts: The grammatical structure changes. For instance, a passive sentence in one

language may need to be translated as an active sentence in another.

- Unit Shifts: This happens when the size of the text being translated changes. A phrase in one

language might be translated as just a word in another.

- Class Shifts: The grammatical class of a word (like whether it is a noun, verb, or adjective)

changes during translation.

- Intra-system Shifts: These shifts happen when the source and target languages have similar

language systems, but the translator selects a different term in the target language that fits better.

Even though Catford’s work was groundbreaking, it was also criticized. Snell-Hornby (1988)

argued that Catford’s approach was too focused on the linguistic aspects of translation and

ignored other important factors like culture, history, and the situation in which the text is

translated. She also criticized his idea of textual equivalence, saying it wasn’t clearly defined.

She found that Catford’s reliance on bilingual speakers to explain translation was not very

strong, and she felt that his examples were too simple and unrealistic. Despite these criticisms,

Malmkjaer (2005) noted that Catford’s definition of translation, where SL material is replaced by

TL material, doesn’t necessarily mean that both materials should have the same meaning. This is

important to understand Catford’s approach better.

6. Werner Koller:

Werner Koller is a well-known German scholar in translation studies. In his book “Introduction

to the Science of Translation” (1979), Koller explores the idea of "equivalence" in translation,

which means finding a match between the source text (ST) and the target text (TT). He also

discusses the term "correspondence," which is about comparing two languages to see how they

are similar or different. While "correspondence" looks at the language systems, "equivalence"

focuses on how specific items in the source text can be translated into the target text, depending

on the context.

Koller identifies five types of equivalence:

1.Denotative equivalence – related to the meaning or content of the text.

Denotative equivalence focuses on the basic, literal meaning of words or phrases. It involves

translating the factual content of the text without changing its meaning.

Example:

Hindi: "सरजू पर्वू र्वसेनिकलता है।"

English: "The sun rises in the east."In this example, the translation directly conveys the same factual content (the direction of the

sunrise) without changing the meaning. It is a simple, straightforward translation.

2.Connotative equivalence – related to the choice of words and their associations.

Connotative equivalence is about choosing words that carry similar associations or emotional

undertones in both the source and target languages.

3.Text-normative equivalence – based on the type or style of the text.

Text-normative equivalence deals with translating according to the norms and expectations of

different text types or genres. It ensures that the translation fits the specific style and purpose of

the text, whether it’s a legal document, literary work, or an instruction manual.

Example:

Hindi: "प्रमाण पत्र" (in a formal context)

English: "Certificate"

In both languages, formal texts, such as certificates or official documents, have specific formats

and terminologies. When translating, it is important to follow the formal conventions of the

target language.

4.Pragmatic equivalence – focusing on how the text will be received or understood by the

audience.

Pragmatic equivalence focuses on how the translation will be understood by the audience. It

considers the cultural background, expectations, and knowledge of the target audience.

5. Formal equivalence – related to the form and structure of the text, including its aesthetic

qualities.

Formal equivalence is concerned with the form, structure, and aesthetic qualities of the text. This

might include things like rhyme, meter, or the overall style of the original text, especially in

poetry or literary works.

Koller's five types of equivalence help translators make informed choices based on the content,

connotation, text type, audience, and form of the original text. By considering these different

aspects, translators can create translations that are both accurate and culturally meaningful,

ensuring that the original text's intent and impact are preserved.

Conclusion:

Koller suggests that translators need to create a hierarchy, or order of importance, for these types

of equivalence based on the needs of the target text. Even though some people might disagree

about which type of equivalence should come first, Koller’s work is important because it

highlights the different ways translators can aim for equivalence.

7. Peter Newmark:

Peter Newmark, one of the key figures in translation studies, made important contributions to the

field. He helped establish the Institute of Linguists and was a strong supporter of making

translation a recognized profession. In his books “Approaches to Translation” (1981) and “A

Textbook of Translation” (1988), Newmark doesn’t try to create a single, all-encompassing

theory of translation. Instead, he offers practical advice for dealing with common problems

translators face.

Newmark introduces two types of translation: semantic translation and communicative

translation. These replace Eugene Nida's terms of formal and dynamic equivalence.

1.Semantic translation:

Semantic translation focuses on the meaning of the original text (source text or ST). It tries to

stay as close as possible to the ST, which can make the translation more complex and detailed.

Sometimes, it might even feel like too much information is included (over-translation).

2. Communicative translation:

Communicative translation focuses on the effect on the reader of the translated text (target text or

TT). It is more about making the translation smooth, easy to read, and clear for the target

audience. This approach may simplify or omit certain details, making it feel more direct

(under-translation).

In semantic translation, the main concern is the author of the original text, while in

communicative translation, the focus is on the needs of the readers. Newmark says that a

translator doesn’t always have to choose one method over the other. Sometimes, in the same text,

one sentence may need semantic translation, while another needs communicative translation.

Both methods can be used together, depending on the specific situation.

Newmark also suggests that literal translation (word-for-word translation) is usually the best

approach in both semantic and communicative translations. However, if literal translation causes

confusion or makes the text sound strange, communicative translation should be used instead.

For example,

Hindi: "गाड़ी धीरेचलाओ, आगेस्कूल है।"

English: "Slow down, school ahead.”

Conclusion:

In conclusion, Peter Newmark's translation theory offers a practical framework for addressing

the challenges of translation. By distinguishing between semantic translation, which focuses on

faithfully preserving the meaning of the source text (ST), and communicative translation, which

prioritizes the needs and understanding of the target audience, Newmark provides translators

with flexible tools to approach different types of texts. Although some have criticized Newmark

for being too rigid, his books offer plenty of practical examples that are helpful for both new and

experienced translators.

8. Mona Baker:

Mona Baker, in her influential book “In Other Words” (1992), provides a comprehensive and

practical approach to translation, particularly focusing on the concept of equivalence. Unlike

previous theories, Baker takes a neutral approach to equivalence, suggesting that it is not an

absolute concept but rather a relative one influenced by various linguistic and cultural factors.

Baker structures her book around different types of equivalence, covering levels such as “word,

phrase, grammar, text, and pragmatics”. This bottom-up approach emphasizes that translators

must first focus on individual words before considering their larger context.

Key Concepts in Baker’s Theory of Equivalence:

1. Word-Level Equivalence:

Baker explains that words in different languages may have multiple meanings and suggests that

translators must consider elements such as “number, gender, and tense” when translating words.

For example, a word in one language may have no direct equivalent in another, forcing the

translator to adapt their approach.

2. Grammatical Equivalence:

This refers to the differences in “grammatical structures” between languages, which can

significantly affect how a message is conveyed. Baker points out that translators often face

challenges related to “number, voice, person, gender, tense”, and aspect. In some cases, the

translator may need to add or omit information in the target text due to differences in grammar.

3. Textual Equivalence:

Textual equivalence is about achieving equivalence in terms of cohesion and information flow.

Baker argues that maintaining the texture (the overall structure and flow) of a text is crucial for

translators. Decisions on whether to retain or modify cohesive elements depend on the target

audience, the purpose of the translation, and the text type.

4. Pragmatic Equivalence:

Pragmatic equivalence deals with implicature, or what is implied rather than directly stated.

Baker draws on Grice's theory of implicature to explain how translators need to understand andtransfer the “intended meaning” behind words, rather than just their literal meaning. The goal is

to make the implied message clear to the target audience.

Contribution to Translation Studies:

Baker’s work is highly regarded because she provides both “theoretical insights” and “practical

strategies” for dealing with real-world translation problems. By focusing on the different levels

of equivalence and offering strategies to overcome specific challenges, her book is a valuable

resource for training translators. It forms a solid foundation for understanding and handling the

complexities of translation in a systematic way.

9. Anthony Pym:

Anthony Pym (2010) offers an important perspective on the concept of equivalence in translation

studies, emphasizing that perfect equivalence between languages does not exist. Instead,

equivalence is always assumed rather than absolute.

Key Concepts in Pym’s Theory of Equivalence:

1. Equivalence as "Equal Value":

Pym defines equivalence as a relationship of equal value between a segment of the source text

(ST) and a segment of the target text (TT). This equivalence can be established at any linguistic

level, whether it be related to the form (how something is written) or function (the purpose or

effect of the text).

2. Natural vs. Directional Equivalence:

2.1 Natural Equivalence:

According to Pym, natural equivalence exists between languages before the act of translation

takes place. It assumes that certain equivalents already exist between two languages, regardless

of the direction in which the translation occurs. For instance, common objects like "table" in

English and "mesa" in Spanish have natural equivalence.

2.2 Directional Equivalence:

Directional equivalence, on the other hand, is more flexible. It allows translators to choose

between different “translation strategies” that are not strictly dictated by the source text (ST).

Pym notes that directional equivalence leads to a choice between two main strategies:

- SL-Oriented Translation: Staying closer to the norms and structure of the source language

(SL).

- TL-Oriented Translation: Adapting the text to fit the norms of the target language (TL).Pym also points out that “asymmetry” is often present in directional equivalence, meaning that

translating one way (from SL to TL) does not always result in the same equivalence when

translating in the opposite direction.

Contribution to Translation Studies:

Pym’s contribution highlights the dynamic nature of equivalence in translation. His distinction

between natural and directional equivalence adds depth to the understanding of how translators

approach different texts and make strategic decisions based on the requirements of the target

language and audience. Pym challenges the traditional view of equivalence as something that can

be perfectly achieved, promoting a more realistic approach that recognizes the complexities and

choices involved in translation.

Summing up..

Translation studies has come a long way since it became a proper field of study in the 20th

century. At first, people thought translation was just about switching words from one language to

another. But over time, scholars realized it's much more complex. They came up with different

ideas about how to make translations sound natural and have the same effect on readers as the

original text. This idea is called "equivalence," and it's been super important in understanding

how translation works. As time went on, experts like Nida, Newmark, and Baker showed us that

there are many ways to achieve equivalence. Sometimes you need to focus on the exact meaning

of words, while other times it's more important to capture the overall message or feeling. Modern

scholars like Pym remind us that perfect translation is often impossible, but we can still find

ways to communicate effectively across languages. The big takeaway is that good translation

isn't just about words - it's about understanding cultures, contexts, and how language really

works in the real world.

    

      📌Eessy

📝 Translating Idioms and Proverbs

Instructions for Students:

○ Write the English idiom/proverb.

○ Give the literal translation in Hindi/Gujarati.

○ Give the equivalent idiom/proverb in Hindi/Gujarati (if available).

Idioms & Proverbs for Assignment:

1. Break the ice

2. Add fuel to the fire

3. Kick the bucket

4. The ball is in your court

5. When pigs fly

6. Once in a blue moon

7. Let the cat out of the bag

8. A piece of cake

9. Don’t cry over spilled milk

Translate the following paragraph 

"Post Office."

In the grey sky of early dawn stars still glowed, as happy memories light up a life that is nearing

its close. An old man was walking through the town, now and again drawing his tattered clothes

tighter to shield his body from the cold and biting wind. From some houses came the sound of

grinding mills, and the sweet voices of women singing at their work, and the sounds helped him

along his lonely way. Except for the occasional bark of a dog, the distant steps of a workman

going early to work, or the screech of a bird disturbed before its time, the whole town was

wrapped in deathly silence. Most of its inhabitants were still in the arms of sleep, the sleep which

grew more and more profound on account of the intense winter cold; for the cold used sleep to

extend its sway over all things even as a false friend lulls his chosen victim with caressing

smiles. The old man, shivering at times but fixed on purpose, plodded on till he came out of the

town-gate onto a straight road. Along this he now went at a somewhat slower pace, supporting

himself on his old staff. 

         " પોસ્ટ ઓફિસ"

સવારના ધૂંધળા આકાશમાં હજી પણ તારાઓ ઝળહળતા હતા, જેમ કે ખુશાળ યાદો એક પૂરી થતી જિંદગીને પ્રકાશિત કરે છે. એક વૃદ્ધ માણસ શહેરમાંથી પસાર થઈ રહ્યો હતો, ક્યારેક ક્યારેક પોતાના ફાટેલા કપડાંને વધુ કસીને ઓઢતો, જેથી ઠંડી અને કટુ પવનથી પોતાનું શરીર બચાવી શકે. કેટલીક ઘરોમાંથી ઘરઘર કરતી ચક્કીઓના અવાજ અને કામ કરતી સ્ત્રીઓના મીઠા ગીતોના અવાજ આવતાં, અને એ અવાજો તેને તેની એકલતાની રાહ પર મદદરૂપ થતા.

ક્યારેક ક્યારેક કૂતરાનો ભસકો, મજૂરનાં દૂરથી આવતાં પગલાં, અથવા પક્ષીનો અચાનક ચીસ સિવાય, આખું ગામ મૃત્યુ સમાન શાંતિમાં લપેટાયું હતું. મોટાભાગના લોકો હજી ઊંઘમાં હતાં—એવી ઊંઘ જે વધારે ઊંડી અને ગાઢ હતી, કારણ કે કડક શિયાળું તેને વધારે ગાઢ બનાવતું. ઠંડી ઊંઘને સર્વવ્યાપક બનાવતી, જેમ કે ખોટો મિત્ર પોતાની શિકારને મોહક સ્મિતથી ભુલાવી દે છે.

વૃદ્ધ માણસ ક્યારેક ક્યારેક કંપતો હતો, પરંતુ મનમાં નિશ્ચય રાખીને ધીમે ધીમે આગળ વધતો રહ્યો જ્યાં સુધી ગામના દરવાજા પાર કરીને સીધી માર્ગ પર ના આવી ગયો. હવે તે થોડો ધીમો પડતો હતો, પોતાના જૂના લાકડી પર ટેકો રાખીને.

“Three Neighbours”

The seth and Ram are waking; the whole world’s calling;

The burdens of the earth with the saviour’s birth are falling.

Sounds of the morning,

Birds twittering in the morning,

Dro.

The seth and Ram are waking; the whole world’s calling;

The burdens of the earth with the saviour’s birth are falling.

Sounds of the morning,

Birds twittering in the morning,

Drown out Makor’s hungry howl.

Ram is in his forest dwelling; the seth in his palace home.

Temple gongs and trumpet sounds of revelry are blown.

Makor faints to her death.

The millstone sings of death.

A lone black crow laments her gone 

સેઠ અને રામ જાગી રહ્યા છે; આખું જગત બોલાવી રહ્યું છે.

પૃથ્વીના ભાર ઉઠી રહ્યા છે, ત્રાણકર્તાના જન્મ સાથે.

સવારનાં અવાજો,

પક્ષીઓની ચહક,

માકોરની ભૂખ્યા રડવાનો અવાજ દટાઈ જાય છે.

રામ પોતાના મંદિરના નિવાસમાં છે; સેઠ પોતાના મહેલમાં.

મંદિરનાં ઘંટાં અને શંખનાદો ગુંજી રહ્યા છે.

માકોર પોતાના મૃત્યુ સુધી બેભાન પડી જાય છે.

ચક્કી મરણનું ગીત ગાય છે.

એકલો કાળો કાગડો તેની વિદાય પર વિલાપ કરે છે.

"The Heart Seeks"

The heart seeks again, those nights and days

Sitting for long, with my imaginings at play

In summer night's easterlies

Staying awake in white sheets

Star-gazing in the terrace, stretched on our feet

"The Heart Seeks"

હ્રદય ફરી શોધે છે, એ રાતો અને દિવસો,

જ્યાં લાંબા સમય સુધી બેઠો, કલ્પનાઓમાં રમતો.

ઉનાળાની રાત્રે પૂર્વીય પવનમાં—

સફેદ ચાદરમાં જાગતા,

ટેરેસ પર તારાઓને નિહાળતા, પગ પથરાવીને.

     “Kabuliwala”

Mini’s mother is naturally a timid person. Whenever she hears a slight noise from the street, she

thinks all the tipplers of the world are rushing together towards our house. After living for so

many years in this world (though not many), she has still not been able to temper her fear that the

world is full of all kinds of horrors: thieves, robbers, drunkards, snakes, tigers, malaria,

cockroaches and European soldiers.

    "Kabuliwala"

મિનીની મા સ્વભાવથી જ ડરપોક હતી. ગલીમાંથી થોડો પણ અવાજ સાંભળતા જ તે વિચારે કે દુનિયાના બધા દારૂડિયા એકસાથે અમારા ઘરે ચઢી આવ્યાં છે.

જિંદગીમાં એટલા વર્ષો (ભલે ઘણાં ન હોય) જીવ્યા પછી પણ તે હજીયે પોતાનો એ ભય ઓછો કરી શકી ન હતી કે દુનિયા બધાજ પ્રકારના ભયોથી ભરેલી છે—ચોર, લૂંટારા, દારૂડિયા, સાપ, વાઘ, મલેરિયા, કોકરોચ અને યુરોપીય સૈનિકોથી.